Andrey SakharovAndrey Sakharov, 1978.(more)dissidents in the Soviet Union and Russia, critics of the regimes in the Soviet Union and 21st-century Russia. Intellectuals and artists who criticized the Soviet system were subjected to persecution, imprisonment, or exile. Opponents of the “managed democracy” of Russian leader Vladimir Putin have faced lengthy jail terms and, often, assassination attempts that have met with varying degrees of success.

　　Dissent in the Soviet Union

　　Aleksandr SolzhenitsynAleksandr Solzhenitsyn, 1964.(more)With the death of dictator Joseph Stalin in 1953, open challenges to the authority of the Communist Party began to be heard in the Soviet Union. Groups of dissenters comprising students, intellectuals, and artists argued for freedom of speech and respect for human rights. Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin’s successor, at first tolerated this openness as part of his broader de-Stalinization plan. In time, however, dissidents were ruthlessly persecuted by Soviet authorities. Many members of the intelligentsia were driven underground or forced to emigrate.

　　The strength of dissident groups reached its pinnacle in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Self-published literature, called samizdat, promoted free speech and was secretly distributed among dissidents. Leonid Brezhnev, who replaced Khrushchev in 1964, cracked down on dissident activity, fearing that it would undermine the legitimacy of the Soviet system. Through contact with the West, dissidents transmitted information about human rights violations in the Soviet Union to the world, and many politically controversial works that were refused publication by the Kremlin were published abroad.

　　A leading figure among dissident writers was Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, a former political prisoner. In 1962 he published his short novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, which depicts the daily life of an inmate in one of Stalin’s forced-labor camps. Beginning in the late 1960s, Solzhenitsyn’s work was banned in his homeland because of his criticism of government repression. The recipient of the 1970 Nobel Prize for Literature, Solzhenitsyn had his citizenship stripped, and he was expelled from the Soviet Union in 1974, soon after parts of his three-volume prison memoir, The Gulag Archipelago, were published in Paris. The dissent that permeated post-Stalinist Russian literature was echoed by dissidents in other fields. Andrey Sakharov, a Soviet nuclear physicist who played a crucial role in the development of the Soviet Union’s first hydrogen bomb, wrote an essay in 1968 that called for Soviet-American cooperation and an end to nuclear arms proliferation. In the 1970s he campaigned against human rights abuses in the Soviet Union. Soviet authorities sentenced Sakharov to internal exile in Gorky (now Nizhegorod) in 1980. Roy Medvedev, a historian, was expelled from the Communist Party under Brezhnev in 1969 because of his criticism of Stalinism. During the Gorbachev era (1985–91), political reform led to the release of many dissidents, and previously banned works found a new audience in the Soviet Union. Sakharov was released from exile in 1986, and Solzhenitsyn’s Soviet citizenship was restored in 1990. Medvedev was readmitted to the Communist Party in 1989.

　　Dissidents of the Soviet eraSvetlana AlexievichAndrey AmalrikVitaly Komar and Alex MelamidYuly DanielRoy MedvedevZhores MedvedevBoris PilnyakIrina RatushinskayaAndrey SakharovAnatoly ShcharanskyAndrey SinyavskyAleksandr SolzhenitsynVladimir Voinovich Dissent in Putin’s Russia

　　Aleksey NavalnyDemonstrators in Moscow protesting the detention of Aleksey Navalny, January 2021.(more)The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked a new era in the region’s history, and the former superpower was replaced by 15 independent countries. Moscow tried to preserve as much political influence as it could (notably, through the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States), and Russia emerged as the direct successor state to the Soviet Union. The 1990s would be a decade of political and economic turmoil under the sometimes erratic leadership of Pres. Boris Yeltsin; a new constitution, adopted in 1993, vested sweeping powers in the office of president, and halting attempts to implement free-market reforms led to soaring inflation and the rise of the oligarchs, a group of financiers and speculators who came to accrue immense power. Into this chaotic environment emerged Vladimir Putin, a career KGB officer and political unknown who was named Yeltsin’s prime minister in 1999. On December 31, 1999, Yeltsin unexpectedly announced his resignation and named Putin acting president.

　　Putin’s subsequent consolidation of power seemed to be an attempt to replicate the top-down control exercised by the Kremlin in the Soviet era. Within the Soviet structure, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union monopolized the levers of state, but, in Putin’s Russia, political power was personalized, centered on Putin himself and a small group of his trusted friends and associates. The oligarchs who had held sway during the Yeltsin years were brought to heel, and Putin made clear that their positions were conditional on their loyalty to the regime and abstention from politics. Incrementally but relentlessly, the regime tightened the screws on civil society and political rights. Mass media and the Internet were brought under state control, and credible opposition in Russia became virtually nonexistent. In February 2015 one of Russia’s most-respected opposition leaders, former deputy prime minister Boris Nemtsov, was assassinated outside the walls of the Kremlin. Aleksey Navalny, perhaps the most visible face in the anti-Putin opposition, was nearly fatally poisoned with Novichok, a complex nerve agent developed by the Soviets, in August 2020. Navalny recovered after receiving treatment in Germany, but he was immediately arrested upon his return to Russia. He died in a penal colony in the Russian Arctic in February 2024.

　　Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now Dissidents in Putin’s RussiaBoris BerezovskyGarry KasparovAlexander LitvinenkoMikhail KhodorkovskyMemorialDmitry MuratovAleksey NavalnyBoris Nemtsov