Where nations invest their surpluses.© MaxSafaniuk/stock.adobe.com, © enanuchit/stock.adobe.com, © Aris Suwanmalee/stock.adobe.com, © Pornpawit/stock.adobe.com, © nata777_7/stock.adobe.com; Photo illustration Encyclopædia Britannica, IncA sovereign wealth fund (SWF) is a state-owned investment fund that governments use to invest surplus revenues and other financial reserves. Countries establish these funds to stabilize their economies, grow national wealth, and generate long-term financial returns. Some SWFs manage hundreds of billions—or even trillions—of dollars in assets, shaping global markets through their investments.

　　The United States has never operated a sovereign wealth fund at the federal level. The move to establish one emerged in 2025 after President Donald Trump floated the idea as a vehicle to purchase TikTok, the embattled Chinese social media site. Trump’s proposal raised fundamental questions about how SWFs function, why countries use them, and the political and economic challenges involved in managing them.

　　How sovereign wealth funds workGovernments have various ways of funding these investment vehicles:

　　Commodity revenues. Many countries, especially those rich in oil and natural gas, funnel surplus profits into SWFs to ensure long-term financial stability.Foreign exchange reserves. Some nations convert excess currency reserves into investment funds to generate higher returns.Fiscal surpluses. Governments with budget surpluses may invest them in an SWF rather than spending them immediately.SWFs invest in a mix of assets, including stocks, bonds, and alternative investments such as real estate, private equity, and infrastructure projects. The primary goal is to generate sustainable returns while supporting national financial stability.

　　A swift history of SWFsThe first sovereign wealth fund, the Kuwait Investment Authority, was established in 1953 to manage oil revenues and safeguard the country’s future. Since then, dozens of nations have followed suit, particularly those with significant wealth tied up in natural resources.

　　Not all sovereign wealth funds follow the same model. Some, like those in Saudi Arabia, are primarily funded by oil revenues, while others, such as those in China and Singapore, were initially funded by foreign exchange reserves and fiscal surpluses. These funds now sustain and grow their capital through earnings from strategic global investments.

　　Over the decades, SWFs have evolved into powerful financial entities, with some expanding beyond traditional investments. Norway’s Government Pension Fund Global, for example, has grown from a simple savings fund backed by oil revenue into one of the largest institutional investors in the world. Similarly, Singapore’s Temasek Holdings operates more like a strategic investment firm, actively managing assets in technology, health care, and other industries.

　　Economic stabilization. Nations that are dependent on volatile commodities such as oil use SWFs to insulate their economies from price swings.Wealth preservation. By investing surplus revenues, governments ensure future generations will benefit from today’s resource wealth.Diversification. SWFs help governments diversify national income sources beyond commodities or traditional tax revenue.Strategic influence. Some funds invest in industries or regions that align with national economic or geopolitical interests.Which countries have them and whyMany of the world’s largest economies operate sovereign wealth funds, although their motivations differ. Over 100 SWFs worldwide manage more than $9 trillion in assets. These examples are notable for their size, influence, or unique investment strategies:

　　Norway. The Scandinavian nation’s 19.7 billion Norwegian kroner ($1.74 trillion) Government Pension Fund Global, funded by oil revenues, is one of the world’s largest investors in public equities, with stakes in thousands of companies.China. The communist nation has multiple SWFs, including the China Investment Corporation, that manage the country’s foreign exchange reserves, with assets under management of $1.35 trillion.United Arab Emirates. Abu Dhabi, the largest of the U.A.E.’s seven emirates, operates the more than $1 trillion Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, a key player in global real estate and infrastructure investments. Singapore. Temasek Holdings and GIC manage national reserves with a focus on long-term global investments. Combined, the funds manage the equivalent of more than $400 billion.Other countries, including Australia, South Korea, and Canada, have established SWFs to manage revenue from natural resources, support economic development, or fund public initiatives. Some nations also operate large government-backed investment funds that share characteristics with SWFs but serve different purposes.

　　When is a SWF not a SWF?Not all massive, government-backed investment funds qualify as sovereign wealth funds, but some function similarly in scale and strategy. These funds often manage pension contributions or resource revenues with long-term investment goals, blurring the lines between SWFs and other public funds.

　　Canada Pension Plan Investment Board (CPPIB). Managing more than C$675 billion ($500 billion), CPPIB invests in stocks, bonds, real estate, and private equity worldwide. Unlike traditional SWFs, it’s funded by mandatory pension contributions rather than commodity revenues or fiscal surpluses. Still, its independence from political control and global investment strategy make it a de facto sovereign wealth fund in some analysts’ eyes.Japan’s Government Pension Investment Fund (GPIF). As the world’s largest pension fund, GPIF manages ¥252.9 trillion ($1.63 trillion) in assets. Although it’s technically a pension fund, GPIF follows an investment approach similar to major SWFs, investing in various asset classes in markets worldwide to generate long-term returns.Texas Permanent School Fund. Texas operates this fund to manage revenue from state-owned lands and natural resources. Its structure and investment strategy mirror aspects of a sovereign wealth fund, but its purpose is to support public education rather than government financial stability.The politics and challenges of managing billionsDespite their financial power, sovereign wealth funds face scrutiny and challenges:

　　Transparency concerns. Some SWFs operate with little public oversight, raising fears of corruption or politically motivated investments.Geopolitical risks. Governments using SWFs to buy stakes in foreign companies can trigger national security concerns. The U.S. and Europe have tightened restrictions on foreign investments in sensitive industries, partly in response to Chinese and Middle Eastern SWFs.Ethical dilemmas. Some funds profit from fossil fuels while governments pledge to fight climate change. Others face criticism for investing in authoritarian regimes or politically controversial industries.Political interference. SWFs are often targets for government intervention, with politicians pressuring them to invest in local projects or fund government initiatives rather than maximize returns.The fate of a U.S. sovereign wealth fundSovereign wealth funds are powerful financial tools that allow governments to manage wealth, stabilize economies, and invest for the future. Although many countries use them effectively, SWFs also come with political risks and ethical concerns.

　　The U.S. has historically resisted creating a national sovereign wealth fund, but the concept surfaced after Donald Trump proposed establishing one in September 2024 as part of his presidential campaign. President Joe Biden’s administration also explored the idea, and Representative Morgan McGarvey (D–Ky.) introduced legislation to study its feasibility.

　　In February 2025, President Trump formally ordered the creation of a U.S. sovereign wealth fund, prompting debate over its purpose, structure, and long-term implications. It’s unclear whether such a fund would function as a pure investment vehicle or take on political and economic objectives. If implemented, it could carry significant financial and geopolitical stakes.

　　David Schepp